Speaking And Pronunciation Syllabus Education Essay

Syllabus design is an built-in portion of English linguistic communication instruction and as instructors seek develop linguistic communication proficiency in 2nd linguistic communication scholars they are expected to make constructions of larning which will enable the accomplishment of this enterprise. As such, this essay provides a justification for a course of study designed to be used in learning speech production and pronunciation to Libyan secondary pupils with Arabic as their first linguistic communication. Ideally, the syllabus marks to decide speech production and pronunciation jobs experienced by English linguistic communication scholars of Arabic descent. More frequently than non, Libyan and Arabic speech production pupils are merely exposed to larning English through formal instructions as explained by Rabab'ah ( 2003:181 ) . Following this, they are unable to to the full foster their speech production and pronunciation accomplishments which are best acquired through syne rgistic and communicative acquisition. As a consequence of the differences which are present between English and Arabic pronunciation, most of these scholars experiences jobs related to emphasis and modulation. However, the greatest hard present amongst Arabic scholars of English is their incapacity to pass on fluently and proficiently in English. It therefore becomes rather important to turn to these jobs by explicating an effectual course of study. The speech production and pronunciation course of study is hence aimed at developing English linguistic communication proficiency and particularly with focal point at developing expert eloquence which as asserted by Chambers ( 1997:536 ) , is the chief index of communicative proficiency. This purpose will at the terminal facilitate communicative and matter-of-fact competences which will let scholars to use the English linguistic communication suitably in their twenty-four hours to twenty-four hours interactions. The scholars targeted by this course of study have shown great enthusiasm for the acquisition of English speech production and pronunciation. Their motive is fuelled by the demand to interact and pass on with English talking tourers who usually frequent Libya. The scholars who are aged between 16 to 17 old ages possess limited capacities in speech production and pronunciation accomplishments as indicated by a nosologies trials carried out prior to the designing of the course of study. At the pre-intermediate degree, this course of study is ideal for them. Organization and Description of the Syllabus The course of study which focuses on developing speech production and pronunciation accomplishments is comprised of a sum of 12 Sessionss with each session amounting to one hr. As such, scholars will hold a sum of 12 hours of contact. There will be 16 Libyan scholars go toing the Sessionss at a linguistic communication centre located in Tripoli. The course of study is organized in such a manner as to reflect the subject, speech production and pronunciation focal point and the speech production activities for every session. In the first unit of the course of study the chief focal point is on talking where scholars will larn how to do questions and besides give information. In making so, they will besides integrate this in larning the pronunciation of long vowel sounds. The 2nd unit follows the same guidelines but the speech production focal point is directed towards speaking about others in a conversation while at the same clip familiarising oneself with the pronunciation of the shwa sound. While the speech production focal point for most Sessionss revolves around doing questions, giving information, doing remarks and explicating descriptions, pronunciation ‘s focal point is at groking the usage of vowels and consonants. Unit 6 utilizes descriptive undertakings in larning the usage of consonants /s/z/iz. Other elements of pronunciation are besides addressed with Unit 3 learning scholars how to associate words and sounds in sentences. Unit 4 marks to learn contracted address signifiers. Other phonological constituents such as modulation, falling and raising modulation are tackled in Unit 7. Word emphasis which is an of import facet of pronunciation is taught in Unit 8. Unit of measurements 11 and 12 accommodate assimilation and the pronunciation of the [ -ed ] signifier severally. The course of study ideally reflects its aims by supplying speech production activities for each session which are meant to supply scholars with an synergistic environment for tackling th eir speech production accomplishments. Evident in the course of study is the usage of synergistic activities throughout all Sessionss. These activities include pair work, function drama, treatments, group work, questionnaires and games. These activities fit the purpose of the course of study as they will give scholars ample pattern on their English communicating, speech production and pronunciation accomplishments. The sample lesson program for Unit 4 clearly indicates learning processs for this scholar centered course of study. Since the chief focal point is to transfuse talking accomplishments to scholars, the instructor is expected to use instruction methodological analysiss which mostly focus on the scholar ‘s acquisition demands. Indeed, functional purpose of the lesson is to enable scholars to seek and give information utilizing telephone devices while the phonological aims include larning how to use contracted address suitably. As indicated by Nunan ( 1998:26 ) , such a scholar centered course of studies can be implemented efficaciously by integrating ample communicative and synergistic undertakings. This is observed in the lesson program as scholars are invariably asked inquiries by the instructor ; they are besides involved in synergistic group work where they pattern colloquial accomplishments. The lesson program is besides realistic and made more effectual by the instructor â⠂¬Ëœs usage function drama undertakings and the usage of familiar content such as the engagement of hotels frequently done by tourers with whom these scholars would desire to interact with. In general, scholars will hold acquired equal speech production accomplishments which they can use in their day-to-day interactions with other English talkers. Talking besides accommodates the formation of relationships with others and the Libyan scholars will make so during their extremely synergistic speech production and pronunciation lesson. Follow up is an of import facet of instruction and acquisition. From the lesson programs guided by the course of study, scholars ‘ apprehension of the content is evaluated by the instructor during the assorted lessons. For case in Unit 4, scholars are expected to transport out group function drama undertakings as they examine their capacity to inquire and give information. The instructor ‘s function in this activity as in all other lesson activities is to interact with the scholars and point out countries which need rectifying. Oral accomplishments are likely to attest with the usage of such synergistic and prosecuting follow up activities as indicated in the course of study. Theoretical Justification of the Syllabus It is quite cardinal in the designing of such a course of study to organize a theoretical footing for its content. This factor provides intent for the course of study and besides provides a nexus between its design and pattern. This course of study chiefly targets the Libyan pupils ‘ capablenesss to pass on efficaciously with other English speech production persons. As such, the course of study must concentrate on bettering eloquence, rightness and intelligibility in their usage of the linguistic communication. Contrary to old aims of larning speech production and pronunciation which was to derive native like speech pattern, current purposes of larning pronunciation focal points on deriving intelligibility as observed by Tarone ( 2005 ) . It is therefore critical to see the rules of the communicative attack of linguistic communication larning utilised as a footing for the course of study. In this attack, the focal point is chiefly on communicating and the content being taught d epends on the scholar ‘s demands. Since the Arabic speech production Libyan learners seek to go better communicators, the course of study has accommodated legion speech production and synergistic undertakings and chances. Libyan scholars are observed to hold troubles in articulating [ -ed ] signifiers and besides the plural signifiers /s/z/iz. Following this analysis, it is important for the course of study to integrate communicative chances for them to pattern the pronunciation of these sounds. Indeed as Brinton, Goodwin and Celce-Murcia ( 1996:8 ) assert that such methodological analysiss like listening and copying and phonic preparation are rather effectual in learning pronunciation. These techniques are reflected in the course of study as scholars are encouraged to accommodate the instructor ‘s competent pronunciation by copying and so practising pronunciations during the lesson activities. In add-on, Libyan scholars will profit amply from the interactive linguistic communication they will larn whose accent as described by Richards ( 1990 ) is to let the creative activity of positive interactions between persons and this is reflected in the course of study as it focus on subjects aimed at le ting scholars to do little talk, questions, give regards and do new brushs. The above communicative attack which has been used in the course of study incorporates undertakings which will enable scholars to incorporate both eloquence and truth in their speech production. Indeed as postulated by Ellis ( 2003 ) , the usage of such undertakings like descriptions and narrations which are dominant in the course of study non merely allows scholars to pattern linguistic communication usage but besides sums to complex and accurate usage of the linguistic communication. Talking truth is besides said to emerge from the usage of unwritten communicating undertakings as described by Lynch ( 2007:317 ) who argues that when scholars cooperate in placing their speech production mistakes and rectifying them they are able to derive assurance in the mark linguistic communication and even strive to talk the linguistic communication suitably. This factor implies that as Libyan scholars who experience troubles in utilizing contracted address will happen it helpful to engaged in un dertakings which encourage both the scholars and the instructor to rectify their mistakes and besides steer them towards avoiding the unneeded usage of long words and sentences. The Syllabus and Pragmatic Competence The mark of the course of study is non merely to develop communicative competency in scholars but besides matter-of-fact competency. Matter-of-fact competency trades chiefly on the utterance degree of linguistic communication and with factors which allow native talkers to use the mark linguistic communication in societal interactions uninhibited. Harmonizing to Rueda ( 2006: 170 ) there are many facets of matter-of-fact competency which can be facilitated during schoolroom direction which means that the course of study needs to actively integrate such sole instructions. For scholars to derive this signifier of competency, they must possess the ability use the mark linguistic communication for different intents. Besides, scholars must get the ability to grok a talker ‘s purposes and have a bid of the linguistic communication regulations utilized in making signifiers of discourse. Explicit direction in the instruction of English to the Arabic speech production pupils is rather ne cessary. Such direction is expected to expose scholars to the accurate English linguistic communication input as observed in the course of study where scholars are provided with relevant speech production and pronunciation contents. Besides as seen in the course of study, it is important to make chances for the pattern of the matter-of-fact cognition that scholars have acquired during the learning procedure. Arabic talking scholars frequently experience jobs in understanding intended significances in discourse chiefly because they are unable to hold on the usage and significances of modulation and word emphasis. Harmonizing to Smith and Swan ( 2001:198 ) the unpredictable nature of English word emphasis eludes most Arabic talkers and instructors need to fit them with accomplishments for observing alterations in significances brought approximately by English word emphasis. As this is important to deriving matter-of-fact competency, the course of study has incorporated these facets as scholars engage in larning undertakings which enable them to separate between falling and raising modulation and the several implied significances. Chapman ( 2007:10 ) points out that the instruction of modulation in an synergistic environment will let scholars to understand how native talkers of English construe them. While trying to learn the Libyan pupils English and promote matter-of-fact competency, it is of import to see the function of top- down and bottom-up abilities. In order to accomplish the acquisition of these accomplishments, learning schemes need to see the differences which exist between linguistic communications and guarantee that scholars utilize these differences in larning the mark linguistic communication and that their native linguistic communication competency does non impede their mark linguistic communication acquisition. For case as illustrated by Chang, El-Ashry, Leclere and Palmer ( 2007:8 ) negative transportations can happen in the acquisition of English vowels by Arabic talkers due to the bing difference in the writing system of both linguistic communications. While vowels are found in the English alphabet and each of them stand foring multiple phonemes, Arabic talkers express their long vowels utilizing letters which represent individual phonemes. This contrast need s to be clearly addressed in the instruction of English long vowels to Arabic scholars. McCarthy and O'Keeffe ( 2004:26 ) ascertain that the usage of spoken principal has become rather of import in the instruction of speech production. Corpus in the instruction of Arabic talkers provides a native illustration of the usage of the mark linguistic communication and efficaciously assists scholars in look intoing their competency. The usage of written texts and recordings in the mark linguistic communication is demonstrated in the course of study and lesson program and promises to heighten eloquence and pronunciation. In learning matter-of-fact competency in Arabic scholars of English, there are assorted underlying premises which include the fact that the act of speech production is tantamount to executing speech Acts of the Apostless, that there are peculiar address Acts of the Apostless used by all linguistic communications and that there are differences in how talkers of different linguistic communications do things and in when they do them. The elaborate course of study has accommodated a huge scope of address Acts of the Apostless as scholars are taught how to transport out assorted colloquial undertakings. Besides, the usage of communicative activities like group work and function drama provides an effectual manner of leaving matter-of-fact competency. Decision From the above treatment, it is apparent that syllabus design is a complex and affecting undertaking. The analyzed course of study will efficaciously transform the speech production and pronunciation capablenesss of the targeted Libyan pupils. Greatly motivated to derive communicative competency in English, the scholars will profit from a communicative instruction attack which is besides learner centered. In add-on, this attack makes it easy to get matter-of-fact competency every bit good. The course of study has incorporated assorted countries in speech production and pronunciation which are considered to be debatable amongst Arabic talking 2nd linguistic communication scholars. As such, the surveies of contracted address, modulation, word emphasis, [ -ed ] signifier application, long vowels and plural signifiers of /s/z/iz/ have been incorporated. Other facets of significance which have been addressed include the usage of spoken principal and the top-down, bottom-up abilities in sc holars. In kernel, this course of study has the capacity to act upon the accomplishment of the larning aims desired by the Libyan pupils.

Beneath and Beyond the Crisis of the Humanities Essay

Course review Introduction                   The primary focus of the humanities class was the exploration of the vast array of issues and topics, especially those related to the culture of humans. In particular, the course exposed the learners to knowledge of the world, and the ways in which the members of society have developed the knowledge and ideologies. The areas of study that were explored during the course of the class included: human history, the politics of society, the world as a whole, and the philosophies developed by different groups and communities (Hariton 178). The class also explored a variety of focal areas, including those used as social lenses for the fashioning of the phenomena studied during the course. The fields that were explored as the lenses used for studying the human world and culture include religion, the channels utilized for communication and the literatures that are used as vehicles of knowledge (Harpham 21).                   The class in humanities has demonstrated its importance for all students in many ways. Firstly, the exposure and knowledge communicated to the humanities’ class was an essential ingredient in widening the analytical abilities needed to navigate other subjects and areas of study. For example, as a scholar of the humanities, it became easier to operate efficiently, as a member of a multicultural team. The scope of the humanities course was important in expanding the skills of communication, both in the areas of written and oral exchange. Through the exposure and the dissection of different studies and phenomena, students were able to conceive the interconnectedness of various knowledge areas. Examples of the practical skills learned included the importance of communication in all other circles of society. The study of global corporations and cultures was very helpful (Harpham 32). The uses of the knowledge included that it fostered the understanding of the various perspectives and knowledge systems studied and encountered in school and society. Through the knowledge developed from other cultures and corporations, learners developed more appreciation for other cultures, their arts, and literature. These constructions are a significant aspect to develop a global understanding of society and its workings. The exposure gained from the humanities class increased the student’s abilities of engaging in value clarification, which deepens the knowledge and wisdom acquired. Examples of the skills learned included those of overcoming failures and difficulties, towards victory – from the information obtained from the lives, experiences of others, and groups. For example, many lessons came from the lives of historical people like Plato and politicians like Abraham Lincoln. More importantly, the class offered the platform needed to cultivate the exchange with great minds like Plato, among others.                   The exposure to the class changed my perspective in a variety of ways. The change of view and outlook, as we navigated through the class included that there is a unique aspect of the nature of all societies. However, the fundamentals of organizations are almost exact copies from one to another. During the beginning of the course, it was easy to reach unfounded conclusions about the Islamic world, from the nature of modernization insurgences. The unwarranted conclusions included that Islam was anti-modernization, due to the attention accorded to normative issues and religious principles. However, after learning about the plurality of societies, it became apparent that the west defined Islam using Western stereotypes and Islam also did the same. The outcomes included the radicalism expressed by people like Ayattulah Khumeini (Hariton 178). The willingness of the East to participate in the modernization has been evidenced by the development of multicultural metros, including Dubai among others. The experience and the dissection of the core of the problems and the criticism channeled against Islam made the topic in Islam a imperative revelation. The themes that appealed to my zeal for knowledge included the fundamentalism of the Islamic world, traditions, and social systems. The emergence of Islam-fashioned modernism is another area that calls for more personal study (Hariton 178). References Hariton, Leon. Humanities 101. Bloomington, IN: iUniverse LLC, 2013. Print. Harpham, Geoffrey. â€Å"Beneath and Beyond the Crisis of the Humanities.† New Literary History, 36 (2005): 21-36. Source document

Which Has Exerted a Bigger Effect on War: the End of the Cold War, or Globalization?

Back in human history, there could be found more than 14, 400 records of wars that have occurred in the past, by taking the lives of billions and affecting the social and political order worldwide. Wars in the contemporary world have gradually been changing in form, mainly due to globalization, by overlapping in different spheres of brutal conflicts and small but extremely dangerous organizations like terrorism and insurgencies. Nevertheless, their true nature and intentions have managed to preserve through ages, as a general norm of social behavior, involving extreme violence, desire for power and manipulation, as well as conflicts established on the basis of religious or ethnic issues. In addition, the end of the cold war had a great impact on the global socio-political picture by establishing a completely new image of international relations, forms of external associations and a strong push for a military affair progress.Could Cold War Have Been Avoided? To understand the nature of war, its influence on current affairs, as well as the impact of globalization on war matters, I would first provide a general definition of â€Å"war†, by presenting some theoretical approaches. Eventually I would concentrate on the impact of the post-cold period and finally, conclude with the affect of globalization. War and theoretical approaches: Scholars have always provided quite contradictory definitions for a â€Å"war†. Indeed defining â€Å"war† could be a complicated task. This is due to the fact that even if the nature of a war remains constant, it always reflects the particular time and place in which it occurs. In other words, the current time, situation, the initial core of the problem, as well as, the level of violence and particular actors would greatly influence and define the type of conflict. Thus, establishing a general idea of a ‘war’ might end to be quite inaccurate. Nevertheless, I would try to present the main general definitions, based on different theoretical approaches. Quincy Wright, for xample, describes war as a â€Å"conflict among political groups, especially sovereign states, carried on by armed forces of considerable magnitude, for a considerable period of time†. (Baylis, 2008, p. 213) Judging by his statement, we could conclude that it’s a realist approach, emphasizing on the power of the state and the highest level of sovereignty that possesses. Another approach of defining war is the definition of Hedly Bulls claiming that war is an â€Å"organized violence, carried by political units against each other†. (Baylis, 2008, p. 14) This definition could be accepted as inappropriate because not every single action of violence is defined as a war. In addition, war could involve and other internal actors except political ones like citizens for example (religious, racial conflicts). A third approach by Clausewitz explains war as â€Å"an act of force intended to compel our opponents to fulfill our will†. (Baylis, 2008, p. 214) This definition is more liberal based as it stresses more on the power and affect of globalization than on the state sovereignty. Even though all of these definitions seem to differ in terms of theory, we could generalize some common characteristics between them, which are organized violence, state or non-state actors, as well as military force and manipulation. To get a better understanding on the definitions, the change of warfare, as well as the impact of globalization and post-cold war period, I would like to summarize and stress on two well known theories: Realism and Liberalism. Realism, first of all, stresses on the power of the state and its sovereignty, representing it as the main actor on the world stage. It also expresses world politics as a ‘self-help system’ and a ‘struggle for power’ between states (Baylis, 2008, p. 5), trying to dominate and maximize their national interests. In addition, globalization is not important and does not affect political world. Liberalism, on the contrary, emphasizes on the effectiveness of democracy, underlying that states are not the only main actors. Transnational actors, international corporations and organizations (like terrorism) are also playing a key role in defining warfare and its evolving. Also, liberalists admit the importance of globalization, economic and environmental issues. Considering the current international affairs, as well as the decline power of state actors, we could assume that the Liberal theory quite successfully matches with the recent socio-political events. Thus, I would further analyze the change of warfare from the perspectives of the Liberal approach. Post-cold war period: The fall of the Soviet Union in 1989, resulting in the end of the Cold War, put a new evolution in the structure of the international relations and the international system. That indeed brought some influential domestic attributes like democracy system in some post-communist states. In addition, the number of wars sharply declined but not and their crucial brutality. A lot of ex-Soviet Union members, as well as some eastern European countries like former Yugoslavia experienced tremendous crisis. Many states disintegrated, which led to bloody civil wars and insurgencies. Another great factor was the new system of democracy that former communist states had to accept. Some states indeed benefited from that but for others that turned out to be a vast and sudden change resulting in more economic crisis and chaos in the population. In addition, this led to the active participation of world organizations like the United Nations, as well as NATO and EU in preserving the peace and avoiding any brutal conflicts that could follow. Such intervention and anti-conflict actions influenced not only the warfare but human morals, as well. People’s understanding of politics, economics became more globally based, not just state-isolated. A state problem eventually turned out to be a global problem, like the war in former Yugoslavia, 9/11 and the current affairs in Egypt. The post-cold war period gave the first strong push of a massive globalization. Indeed, globalization has always existed in human history and has always been an inevitable process; nevertheless no one has particularly mentioned it before the end of the Cold War. Another great change that affected the warfare was the absolute hegemony power that the USA gained. With the fall of the Soviet Union, the international system changed from a phase of ‘bipolarity’ into a phase of ‘unipolarity’. Thus, USA’s global influence speeded up even more the going on process of globalization, turning it in to â€Å"Americanization†. (Baylis, 2008, p. 13)USA was surely outstanding in terms of military power and technical innovations; nevertheless it did nothing to prevent the up-coming events of organized violence and particularly terrorism. A good example is the 9/11 event and the Iraq War in 2003. Even though USA had a magnificent superiority in terms of weaponry, technical and communication technology, the responding asymmetric attacks that followed, as well as the terroristic actions in London and Madrid proved the dramatic changes that have occurred in terms of warfare. Globalization: The revolution in military affairs that followed in the 1991, right after Gulf War, built a new image and form of the contemporary warfare. With the vast development of technology, communication, Internet and media, war was eventually converted into a new form of a war conflict, unfamiliar for the old Westphalian Order ideas. The primary Westphalian characteristics of a territoriality, fixed boarders, self-determination and states as only key-actors completely contradict with the contemporary current global affairs. And indeed, Globalization is more than just interconnectedness. It involves much more than cooperation and international relations between states. It eventually dissolves the state boarders, turning the world into a â€Å"shared social space†, (Baylis, 2008, p. 18) as well as, placing the economical and political activities into a completely new transnational global scale. Another important factor of globalization is the â€Å"time-space compression†. (Baylis, 2008, p. 18) Nowadays, any power or military actions could be exercised from a distance and fulfilled for a relatively short period of time. Globalization has broken any possible barriers involving distance, space or time with the help of Internet, communication and media. These factors have resulted in an entire new generation of warfare. In such a new era of innovation and high technology, new non-state actors have managed to transform both cyber place and media into a real battlefield. From one hand, this has led to the creation of highly effective and complex weaponry machinery, ensuring better protection and momentum responds to military actions. On the contrary though, that also leads to terrorism, organized crimes, violence as well as, weapons of mass destruction. With the ability of producing and exporting such powerful technology, the safety of humans and the brutality of contemporary warfare are surely not on the way of declining. Another negative consequence of globalization results in the different economical level of the world countries and the continuous growing gap between them. Indeed globalization is useful and helpful for powers like Japan, USA and Russia but other countries like Sierra Leone or Eritrea definitely lack the benefits of globalization. This creates poverty, eventually crisis, which could lead to civil wars and more bloody violence. In the past decade, 95% of the armed conflicts have occurred within states rather than between them. Such new wars take place in states where the economy is extremely poor or even collapsing. Conclusion: Many of the characteristics of warfare mentioned above are not new features of war conflicts. They have been existing for a long time since early human history. That includes religious or ethnic confrontations, or any other kind of conflicts performed with extreme brutality. What really empowered the contemporary warfare and made it so massively destructive is globalization. It is the human ability and necessity to protect or manipulate, to defend themselves or just to apply control over a state of civilians. It is hard yet to predict what other crucial impacts globalization would have on humanity and eventually on warfare. Whatever the reason though, wars would never stop to exist and they would be always a human norm of a social behavior, that would adopt according to the current environment and current period of time. References: Baylis, John, Smith, Steve and Owens, Patricia (eds.) (2008). The Globalization of World Politics: An Introduction to International Relations, Oxford: Oxford University Press (4th ed.) Boyer, P. (2001). The Oxford Companion to United States History. Post–Cold War Era. Retrieved January 29, 2011 from: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O119-PostColdWarEra.html Encyclopedia of the new American Nation. Cultural Relations and Policies – Globalization and the cold war. Retrieved January 29, 2011 from:

Lockheed Martin Corporation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Lockheed Martin Corporation - Essay Example The operations of the corporation are divided into different segments comprising electronic systems (27%), aeronautics (27%), information systems and global solutions (27%) and space systems (19%). Today, US government contracts account for much of the corporation’s revenue while foreign government contracts also make up a substantial share of the revenue. On the other hand, orders from commercial clients only make up a mere 2 % of the total revenue the corporation nets in a year. In 1996, the corporation finalized the plans to acquire Lorad Corporation which subsequently became part of the Corporation at a cost of $9.1 billion. Like any other global corporation engaging thousands of employees across the world, Lockheed is certainly faced with a myriad of challenges that normally define business operations in the present world. One of the greatest challenges facing the corporation is the need to address employee concerns and effectively tackle the aspects of employee and indus trial relations without many problems like is always the case. On certain instances the corporation has had to face the challenge of striking workers and go slow as employees complained about various aspects relating to their operations in the organization (Terris, 2010). In that regard, the aspect of dealing with these employee concerns has been one of the greatest employee challenges affecting the organization. Like most workers in the industry, most of Lockheed’s workers are unionized under the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace workers and are always part and parcel of the activities steered by the association. The International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers is a worker organization which draws its origin in 1888 when a group of nineteen machinists came together and formed the Order of the United Machinists and Mechanical Engineers. With time, the small organization grew up in membership and adopted the present name. The organization h as had a turbulent history characterized by the growth of labor movements in the twentieth century. The growth of the union went in tandem with the development of the transport industry throughout the years as more and more workers became employed in the industry. During its formation, the organization was generally a secret affair given that employers of the time were very critical and hostile toward organized labor movements. However, the Order rapidly spread beyond its formation zone of Georgia and was soon a recognized affair in the United States. Much of the growth in the membership of the union was mostly evidenced during the World Wars when workers in the transport industry increased owing to the increased demand of vehicles and airplanes. In the course of the 1970s, the union was segmented into several divisions dealing with specific issues affecting the members. These included civil right, organizing, older workers and retired workers and women. At a convection held in 1984 in Seattle, Washington, the delegates voted and decided to use the Placid Harbor Education Center in order to train and educate the members of the union. In 1998, the center was renamed to the Winpisinger Education and Technology Center in order to recognize and honor the late President of the union. Throughout history, the union has always addressed the issues affecting

I Used to Live Here Once by Jean Rhys Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

I Used to Live Here Once by Jean Rhys - Essay Example The short story â€Å"I Used to Live Here Once" begins with a description of a woman visiting her childhood home; one can deduce this from her description of the environment as it is and comparing it to her retrospective view. She comes across two children in a house in which she resided in the past and when she tries to greet them, they seem to ignore her. Moreover, when she finally gets close and tries to greet them again, they do not see her and one remark on the cold, they enter the house without having seen her, and that is when she realizes they cannot see her since she must have stopped living. The narrator’s displacement and apparent alienation from an environment that must have been retrospectively natural to can be compared to the writers own life of displacement. From a psychoanalytical perspective, it is possible that the writer was expressing and living out her memories in the land that was her home and from whence she was uprooted at a tender age. The fact that the narrator was female helps the reader draw an easier parallel to the writer and feel her disappointment when her attempts at maternal affection are ignored by the children giving the story an emotional edge. This underlying connection implies that since she moved from the Dominicans where she was born at the age of 17, she lost touch with her land of birth and never actually felt at home even in England and hence the general alienation of the writer is expressed in her character’s displacement. The authors past has considerable effects on the bearing of the story since she is able to portray the character’s emotional confusion, and alienation accurately, herself having been quoted in the past expressing ambivalence about her origin and the country to which she belonged. The writer takes the reader back to the narrator’s past through her reminiscing as she nostalgically remembers the place, as she knew it in the past. She remembers the stones and the dexterity needed to get across, her affection for the place is evident in that she walked with joy on the road although she described it as wider but messily expanded with trees not being cleared and trampled on. She remembers the house had screw pine, which was still there although the pine screws were gone as well as the summerhouse. The children’s color is of interest to the writer who describes them as being fair despite being in the tropics, which as a symbol of resilience the whites were forced to adopt in to survive. The idea of reaction and adaption to nature, especially on a racial perspective, can be tied to the writers past since although she was while living in a predominantly black country, she often interacted with black and admired their culture and nature. Most of the things she remembers are symbolic of the narrators past and present feeling and the writer has clearly injected considerable aspects of her life in the same. Take ether fact that she finds the road to be incomplete, this could symbolize the fact that she thought she had unfinished business with the place hence her return, besides, considering the author's history of prostitution and drug abuse.

The Travel and Tourism Sector in the UK in Response to Changes in the Assignment

The Travel and Tourism Sector in the UK in Response to Changes in the Industry and Society - Assignment Example The paper tells that in 2012, the United Nations World Tourism Organization reported that 1.035 billion international visits were made in 2011, resulting in expenditure in excess of $1 trillion.In the UK, 134 billion Sterling pounds were spent on tourism. This figure represented an increase of 6.9% in 2011. Demand for tourist goods and services in the UK has increased substantially during the past few decades. The growth has been so steady that even in the aftermath of the worldwide economic downturn of 2008, tourism earning grew by 6.9% to reach 134 billion Sterling pounds in 2012, compared to 2011 earnings. In absolute terms, the sector earned 9 billion pounds more than it did in 2011. This amount of money is enough to create 180,000 new jobs in the UK. The following paragraphs explain the factors behind this growth. Growing disposable incomes: The disposable of the average British worker has grown tremendously since the Second World War. Disposable income is the income that an ind ividual or a household is left after paying taxes and meeting their basic needs. With more disposable incomes, more and more people can now afford a vacation once in a while. Changing perceptions: Until recently, many citizens of the UK saw tourism as a luxury product that was reserved for the rich in society. This perception has since changed. More and more Britons are coming to appreciate tourism as a basic necessity of today's life. Of course, tourism has not reached the same level of necessity as food, shelter, education, and healthcare. Nevertheless, increasingly more Britons are embracing tourism. Government tourism policy: In 2011, the government of the United Kingdom enacted a tourism policy. The policy seeks to promote domestic tourism. The goal was pursued out of the realization that most Britons are more likely to travel abroad for a holiday rather than spend it in the country.

The current economic situation of UK Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

The current economic situation of UK - Essay Example Morris Capital is going to face a situation in which there may be a gap between its inflows and outflows and as such its liquidity may be drained in coming periods. Based on this, it is estimated that the fund withdrawals will be 3% more than the inflows received by the firm owing to the fact that its investment strategy allow investors to start withdrawing the funds after five years. Considering this situation, the Investment Committee of Morris Capital is going to meet in March 2010 to further discuss the strategic allocation of the assets as well as outline the future course of action. This report will therefore provide an overview of the current investment environment and provide alternatives for plausible asset allocation along with the recommendations for the future course of action that may be taken. The current economic situation of UK is relatively more unstable owing to the financial meltdown that occurred during 2007. The overall situation is not considered as healthy as the estimates indicate that the UK’s economy will grow at a very sluggish rate as IMF’s forecasts indicate that the UK’s economy is its worst after 1930s. During 2009, UK’s economy experienced a growth rate of just 0.1%1 during the last quarter of 2009 indicating the overall state of the economic conditions.

Juvenile Justice - Gang Control Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Juvenile Justice - Gang Control - Assignment Example These mechanisms include the law enforcement and justice system, governmental intervention, collaboration with social institutions as well as employing the assistance of the rich, powerful and the rest of the society in assistance with the social control to end the social conflict (Siegel and Welsh, 2008). This is exactly what the end of youth gang problem in society needs a collaboration of several strategies and mechanisms that are not only based on legal proceedings and law enforcement but which aim to completely transform the lives of these youth gang members and those of their families and they may shun away from the gang life by for example giving them education and skills training so that they can seek honest jobs. 2. Accurately assessing a gang problem is a crucial first step in effective intervention as noted in the training module. Where would you go to get the most accurate information regarding gang membership and activity in your community? How would you deal with the stereotypes that are often portrayed by the media in your assessment? The most accurate data and information about the gangs would be got from the community policing committee as it is this committee that even involves the police and other law enforcement personnel on the gangs in the area. They get their information from parents, guardians, schools and even from their community policing activities in the community. The parents and schools have the mandate to inform the community about their children or students activities or suspicious behaviour. The other source is from the social workers with various social institutions and organizations. The stereotypes by the media on the issue of youth gangs mostly are as a result of wrong information of these gangs from the definition of what youth gangs are to their way of dressing or even social interaction. The first way to deal with such stereotypes is to obtain the correct definition of youth gangs including their areas of meeting and the activities they carry out.  Ã‚  

Rio Carnival Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Rio Carnival - Essay Example The social background to the Carnival is that it was once considered to be a riotous, disorganized and essentially anti-authoritarian expression by the people that the government was forced to accept because of its popularity but which it did not positively condone. The Rio Carnival found its roots in the 1830's when the city's rich imported the practice of holding balls and masquerade parties from Paris. Gradually, over the next century, the festival took on the shape that it now holds, acquiring elements derived from African and South American Indian cultures. It is this mixture of cultures into a remarkably diverse and yet recognizably unified "Rio Carnival" that is the prime social characteristic of the celebration. The Carnival is the reason that Rio de Janeiro is famous throughout the world. Indeed, it may be the only thing that most people know about the city. This influences both the social and economic identity of the city, for better or worse. Thus while the original idea came from France, the cordoes were introduced by the Portuguese in the late 1800s. The cordoes were groups of people who danced through the streets playing music and generally celebrating. They are known today as blocos, and consist of people who dress in theme costumes and celebrate Carnival in a specific way. Certain neighborhoods are associated with certain blocos. In a social aspect that stems from a number of different traditions, a "fat man" is elected to act out the role of the Rei Morno, or the "King of Carnival" (Cowley, 2002). In recent years, cultural changes within the world as a whole, and within the developed world in particular, have been reflected within the social makeup of the Rio Carnival. For example, many different travel companies advertise the "Gay Rio Carnival" in which "the beaches are loaded with eye candy as far as the eye can see . . . people joke that everyone seems a little gay during carnival" (zoom, 2007). Small gay festivals have become a part of Carnival, and may be regarded as part of a sub-culture of hedonism in which this city, known for its surprisingly permissive attitudes vis--vis social mores, becomes even more accepting during this celebration of freedom. There is a great mixture of factors going into the social impact of Carnival upon the city in particular, and the country in general. As Teissl puts it: Carnival is all the little festivals and parades in the streets and favelas, Rio de Janeiro's poor quarters. Carnival is also masked balls, elegant and often uninhibited - even debauched, where one sees fewer masks but plenty of skin, And Carnival is a time for competition in which countless participants pay thousands of dollars for luxurious and fantastic costumes. But Carnival is also a time of fraternization, tolerance, and genuine human friendship. (Teissl, 2000) So variety and indeed a degree of contradiction exists within Carnival. Thousands of dollars may be spent on a single costume for a rich masked ball while in some neighborhoods that still attempt to celebrate Carnival the average yearly wage may not reach that amount. This contrast can be seen in two main ways. One, more positive manner is to regard it as showing just how universal the feelings and atmosphere surrounding Carnival is. Thus, within this interpretation, "Carnival" is a transcendent social structure which

Principles of European Contract Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5500 words

Principles of European Contract Law - Essay Example The Unidroit Principles have been regularly applied as lex mercatoria in international commercial arbitration, as they 'meet all the substantive requirements of a true law merchant. On the contrary, arbitrators are being reluctant to apply PECL as generally accepted principles of commercial law in international arbitration. This may be due to their relative novelty, to the fact that their scope is limited to the European Union, or to the strong materialism and esprit collectif which manifests itself by the preminent role of the good faith principle and by a social regulation of the contract which may be dubious in an international context (in particular, the regulation on excessive benefit or unfair advantage, unfair terms not individually negotiated or change of circumstances). In this sense, in the ICC arbitration case no. 12111, the arbitrator rejected claimant's claim for the application of PECL, concluding that they constituted an academic research, at that stage not largely wel l-known to the international business community, being a preliminary step to the drafting of a future European Code of Contracts, not enacted yet. Thus, PECL has not yet obtained a universal status as a (modern) lex mecatoria. It cannot be regarded as constituting an autonomus lex mercatoria but as a part of universal lex mercatoria. ... And at one time, without doubt, it was the law of England simply because it was the law of other nations. Its Origin The exact place and time of its origin is uncertain. Many writers have stated that it began in Italy in the central part of the Middle Ages. But investigation of early documents shows that it goes back much further. For instance, to the time when the Arabs dominated the Mediterranean. But they invented little and many of the terms which they used came from the Romans, Greeks and Phoenicians, who for many hundreds of years monopolized the sea commerce. First Treaties on Merchant Law in England - 1622 The first work on merchant law in England was written by Gerard Malynes published in 1622, entitled "Consultudo Vel Lex Mercatoria" or the Ancient Law Merchant. In his preface to this work, he stated that he had entitled it Lex Mercatoria instead of Jus Mercatorum because it is customary law provided by the authority of all kingdoms and Commonweals, and not a law established by the sovereignty of any prince. Blackstone stated that the affairs of commerce were regulated by a law of their own called the Law Merchant or Lex Mercatoria "which all nations agree in and take notice of and it is particularly held to be part of the law of England which justifies the causes of merchants and the general rules which obtain in all commercial countries." Still later, Lord Mansfield stated that "Mercantile law is not the law of a particular country but the law of all nations". On What Law Merchant Based The Lex Mercatoria would seem to be in part based on Roman law, in part maritime custom, in part the law of the Medieval

Strategic Human Resource Development Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Strategic Human Resource Development - Essay Example However, there are areas of significant importance - like training - that have been excluded from the control of Personnel Department and are organized into separate units within the organization. Due to the above phenomenon as well as to the delays in the firm's development - which have been caused by the dysfunction of the Personnel Department - the examination and the evaluation of the role of the latter has been considered as necessary especially given the extremely competitive conditions that characterize the UK market. Current Personnel Function of Highway Stores Ltd is based in the firm's head office in Midlands. Furthermore, the specific department comprises a Personnel Manager, a Personnel Officer and 3 Personnel Administrators. The main duties of the staff include the control of all issues related with the firm's human resource management except the payroll sector which has been incorporated in the Finance Department. The Personnel Function reports directly to the Legal Director. Another significant problem is created by the fact that there is not a specific provision for the training of the head offices' personnel (training programs as designed and developed by the Training function involves only the employees of the store network). On the other han On the other hand, the Personnel function has not proceeded to the design and implementation of a specific problem-solving procedure but there is a standard internal policy that whenever a problem arises, a guidance is issued. The absence of control over the training procedure as well as the failure of designing and applying an effective personnel policy can be considered as major problems for the Personnel function. Moreover, the lack of appropriate qualifications of the Personnel staff can be viewed as a severe disadvantage of the specific department while due to this fact; most of the problems arising in the human resources field have to be faced by the only qualified person of the department, its Manager. It's for this reason that Personnel Manager is not available for his managers whenever his intervention is requested by the Personnel staff. At a next level, a major weakness of the Personnel function is the procedure related with the sickness of employees. The Personnel function keeps records on employees including health certificates as well as notices on the employees' long term absence of work (six weeks or more) due to sickness. In this way, the department is not informed for the employees' short or long term absence of the work (except the above mentioned case) with all the consequences that this fact can have for the effectiveness of the firm's human resource management. Another problem involves the extension of the role of the Personnel function is the recruitment process. The specific process is designed and implemented by the Managing Director, while the responsibility for the recruitment of new staff belongs to Area managers. It should also be noticed here that

Waiting for the Barbarians by J. M. Coetzee Essay Example for Free

Waiting for the Barbarians by J. M. Coetzee Essay All this erotic behavior of mine is indirect: I prowl about her, touching her face, caressing her body, without entering her or finding the urge to do so. But with this woman it is as if there is no interior, only a surface across which I hunt back and forth seeking entry. Is this how her torturers felt hunting their secret, whatever they thought it was? pg.43. One of the central figures in J. M. Coetzees Waiting for the Barbarians is the barbarian girl. The Magistrate finds the girl maimed and nearly blind after being interrogated and tortured by the ruthless Colonel Joll, and takes her in. The Magistrates relationship with the girl revolves around his search for the girls significance; he questions her about her torture, he attempts to understand her through her physical surface, and tries to use her as the key to unlocking his own meaning. Ultimately, the Magistrates treatment of the barbarian girl mirrors her treatment by Colonel Joll; they both use her as a tool in their respective searches for knowledge. The parallels between Joll and the Magistrates behavior towards the barbarian girl can be seen in the selected passage. The Magistrate is going over his conduct towards the girl in his head, and expressing some puzzlement as to the motivation behind his actions as well as over their lack of fruition. He puts effort into making romantic gestures towards her, but does not sleep with her, nor does he really want to. He seems to want something from her, but is unsure about what that is or how to go about getting it. This makes the woman seem mysteriously full of meaning and yet impenetrable to him, in more ways than one. His last thought is to compare his search for meaning in his relationship with the girl to her torturers search for an elusive secret from her. By describing his own behavior as indirect, we get a sense of the Magistrates own lack of clarity towards the subject. He makes erotic overtures towards the girl, but he makes them indirect[ly], implying that his goal is not to seduce the girl but what his true intentions are remain unclear, even to him. The Magistrate does not understand his fascination with the barbarian girl. This can be illustrated on pg. 40 where  he asks her not only why she is with him, but also, why do I want you here? He tries to analyze his relationship to the girl and use it to somehow get a better understanding of who he is. However, his philosophical questions get few answers from her, and none that satisfy him. He focuses his interest on her scars and what transpired during her torture sessions, questioning her incessantly. He bathes her and massages her with almond oil, paying special attention to her injuries. Using his hands to feel all over her body, repeatedly he tries to recreate in his mind the whole of what she was like before the torture, the whole of the person she is and was. Yet it seems to him as if she has no interior, only a surface across which I hunt back and forth seeking entry. Because he cannot find her interior, or the meaning that she holds for him, he blindly searches the physical surface for meaning. The Magistrate tries to interpret his own meaning through the girls body. Like the wooden slips covered in barbarian characters that the Magistrate polished and pored over for so many hours, her oiled body becomes a text to decipher his own meaning. When she grudgingly reveals some of the torture methods used on her, it does not bring her and the Magistrate any closer together, neither does it bring the Magistrate any closer to understanding her; interestingly enough, it functions to give the Magistrate more insight into Jolls character and his relationship to him. Her scars are like the ugly truth of the Magistrates quiet complicity in the atrocities committed in the name of Empire that he must bring himself to reconcile with, by looking at them and feeling them over and over again. Once the Magistrate begins to realize the role he had in facilitating the acts of torture, and how horrendous they truly were, he also begins to see the similarities between Joll and himself. The verbs the Magistrate uses to describe his own actions towards the girl in the selected passage, such as prowl, hunt, and even seeking create an image of a furtive predator rather than a lover. This is a manifestation of the guilt he feels for his part in her injuries. But we do not get a real sense of threat or danger from the Magistrate because he states that this hunter is non-invasive: he does not enter her and has no urge to do so. Even the phrases touching  her face, and caressing her body, which normally would invoke intimacy, when put in the context of prowling give the impression of a hunter thoroughly examining the pelt of its prey. It is easy to make the connection between this image and the image of the Magistrate examining the barbarian girls broken ankles and scars. Joll and the accomplice torturers are also referred to as hunting the girl; while Joll was aggressively searching for a secret he never found, the Magistrate hunts for how to figure her out and enter her surface, which he also fails to find. However, they both hunt for some sort of meaning from this girl, suggesting Jolls use of her is similar to the Magistrates use for her. Joll tortures her to try to get secret information about an impending barbarian offensive attack (which turns out to be nonexistent information in the first place). However, he still hunts the truth from her until she is left blinded and crippled. The Magistrate presses for details of her torture, harasses her with philosophical questions, and engages in his cryptic washing and oiling rituals while searching for meaning through her body. In his various ways he also tries to hunt out meanings from the girl, and he comes to realize his relationship to the girl thus mirrors that of Jolls. They both use the girl as a means to some desired end of knowledge, whether it be a secret of war or a secret of why. Furthermore, the Magistrate comes to see his mirroring of Joll might not just end with the barbarian girl. The girl ultimately serves as the interface for the Magistrate to see the parallels between himself and Joll. It is significant that the Magistrate takes up with the girl only after Joll has discarded her- the fact that the Magistrate must have overseen her arrival with the soldiers was a recurring thought of his. However, he had no interest in her until after Joll had left her permanently handicapped. The Magistrate eventually comes to see that his attempt to connect with the woman was an attempt to retrace Jolls footsteps; to understand the man  and his actions by putting himself into an intimate relationship with the barbarian girl. But he also does this to distinguish himself as different from Joll; he regretted he could not engrave [himself] as deeply (p.135) on her as Joll had, but he wished to leave the mark of his pseudo-loving on her rather than the marks of pain and torture she had from Joll. The relationships the barbarian girl has with Colonel Joll and the Magistrate are similar in that both use her as a tool in their respective quests for knowledge. Joll tries to coerce her into saying something to justify an attack on the barbarians, while the Magistrate tries to use her to interpret himself and his role in the Empire, but they both believe that she is the key to unlocking some truth they seek. They both use the girl for their own purposes, without any regard for her as a person, and Joll treats her very cruelly. The Magistrate cares for her physical well-being, but he does not truly attempt to get to know beyond her surface, and only attempts to understand her through what function she serves in his life. Eventually he realizes through his relationship with her how many parallels exist between him and Joll. The girl stands between the two men as a one-way mirror that they both use, but gradually becomes two-way for the Magistrate, allowing him to see the Joll alter ego mingling with his own reflection. Coming to accept this also means collapsing some of the distance that he had mentally established between himself and Joll, and likewise accepting a certain share in the responsibility for all the atrocities committed by Joll in the name of the Empire.

Prediction Of Cutting Forces In Broaching Operation Commerce Essay

Prediction Of Cutting Forces In Broaching Operation Commerce Essay According to variety of workpiece profiles in broaching, the geometry of cutting edge varies from simple line to very complicated curves. Wide range of cutting edge geometry in broaching imposes complexity to the distribution of the chip load along the cutting edge. Hence, prediction of cutting forces in broaching is not as simple as other machining processes. Due to this complexity, introducing an applicable force model for all of the orthogonal and oblique broaching cutters can be problematic. In this paper, an attempt is made to present a new force model for broaching. The newly proposed force model expresses the cutting edge as a B-spline parametric curve and uses their flexibility to calculate the chip load as well as cutting forces for orthogonal and oblique broaching. Verified by experimental results, the presented model has a great capability to simulate broaching cutter geometry along with cutting forces and it can be applied for the entire broaching cutters. 1. Introduction Broaching is a powerful process for the production of complex internal and external profiles. As a machining process, it is commonly used for the machining of a broad range of profiles such as keyways, guide ways, holes and fir-tree slots on turbine discs. Broaching has considerable advantages in comparison to other machining processes. Roughing, semi finishing and finishing of a complex profiles can be done in one stroke of the machine which would require many passes in other conventional processes such as turning, milling, slot milling, etc. It can also produce parts with high surface quality and high geometrical and dimensional tolerances in one stroke. Since the number of simultaneously engaged cutting edges with the workpiece is higher than the other cutting tools, the chip load on each of them will be smaller and tool life is distinctively longer in comparison to other machining processes such as milling and turning [1]. It can be also mentioned that broaching machines are not as complicated as CNC milling or CNC turning machines and thus considered as a simple operation that requires not a highly skilled operator. In other commonly used machining processes such as milling and turning, final geometry of workpiece is generated by combination of tool and workpiece motion and there is no similarity between final geometry of workpiece and cutting tool geometry. In broaching, the geometry of machined part is derived directly by the inversion of broaching cutter geometry. Therefore unlike other machining processes, broaching cutters have a wide range of geometries as well as parts. Consequently, chip load has a complicated non-uniform 2D or 3D geometry depending on the profile complexity of workpiece. A unique feature of broaching operation is that it is not possible to change any of the cutting parameters during process but the cutting speed. That is because all other cutting parameters such as feed, depth of cut and width of cut are built in features of broac hing tool geometry which makes the tool design the most important aspect of broaching. Although broaching is well defined in industry, just a limited number of researches have reported work in the open literatures. In 1960 Monday [2] presents the most comprehensive source on broaching. A detailed description of broaching technology can be found in his book. Kokmeyer [3] edited collection of works on broaching representing the usefulness of the process. Gilormini et al. [4] analyzed the cutting forces on a single broaching and compared them to the forces in slotting and tapping process. Terry et al. [1] presented a system for optimal design of broaching tools. They presented the factors that affect productivity in broaching and explained the design constraints, their importance and how they are selected. Finite element was used to predict the tooth deflection and experimental data in order to create the general rules for designing. Sutherland et al. [5] presented a force model for broaching based on the oblique analysis to determine the forces in the gear broaching proc ess. Their model showed the relationship between contact area, chip load and cutting force. Sajeev et al. [6, 7] investigated the effects of broaching parameters on the tool and workpiece deflections and the final shape of the broached geometry. Budak [8] examined the performance of broaching tools used for broaching of waspaloy turbine discs with fir-tree profile based on the monitoring of force and power. It has been demonstrated that for most of the investigated tools, the load distribution among the broaching sections were non-uniform resulting in uneven wear. Recently Ozturk and Budak [9, 10] performed Finite Element Analysis to calculate the stresses in the broaching tool during the cutting process. The developed model is used to simulate the broaching process and predict the generated stresses in the tool to improve the tool design. He studied fir-tree profiles, simulated the broaching process forces and the tool stresses to improve the tool design. Later Kokturk and Budak [1 1, 12] performed an optimization on the geometry of the broaching tool cutting edges. In their study the cutting conditions are changed until they can satisfy the preset constraint. They also used the optimized conditions to improve the broaching process. Yussefian et al. [13] applied B-Spline parametric curves in modeling of boring process. Recently Hosseini and Kishawy [14] presented a general force model for orthogonal broaching using B-spline interpolation of cutting edge. By taking geometric flexibility of B-spline curves, their model was capable of modeling any arbitrary orthogonal broaching cutting edge geometry as well as computing the chip load for various cutting conditions. This paper proposes a 3D general force model for the broaching process. The proposed force model is capable of modelling of three force components using B-Spline interpolation of the cutting edge. Each cutting edge is first modeled by B-Spline parametric curves then the chip load is calculated by integ ration of area between two successive edges. The proposed force model for orthogonal and oblique broaching can calculate the chip load for any arbitrary geometry of cutting edge from the simplest to the most complicated. The proposed method is used to calculate the generated forces and the results are compared to the measured data. 2. Broaching tool geometry Broaching tool is a straight multi tooth cutter in which several cutting edges engage with the workpiece simultaneously and each tooth removes a portion of material from workpiece surface. Broaching cutter has a tapered flat or round profile with a series of teeth on its surface [4]. Each successive tooth in a broaching tool is higher than the preceding one to perform the cutting action and remove material from workpiece surface. Broaching cutters in their general form can be geometrically divided into three categories of teeth, namely, roughing, semi-finishing and finishing teeth. Roughing teeth remove the bulk of material from workpiece, semi finishing teeth produce the basic surface finish (surface quality), and finishing teeth provide the final surface finish and set geometrical and dimensional tolerances [4]. Figure (1) shows a typical broaching cutting tool. Figure 1: Schematic view of broaching tool Normally the maximum rise per tooth in broaching tool belongs to the roughing teeth which perform the major part of metal removal. The rate of rising per tooth slightly decreases in semi finishing teeth as they only remove a small portion of material from workpiece surface to improve the dimensional accuracy and surface quality. In the finishing part, all of the teeth have the same height. These teeth are not cutting teeth and they provide the desired surface quality and adjust the geometrical and dimensional tolerances in the predefined range. Figure (2) illustrates the general mechanism of cutting in broaching. Figure 2: Mechanism of cutting in broaching When broaching cutter is accurately designed, broaching process can be faster and more accurate than many other machining processes. Although the initial cost of establishing for a broaching process is comparatively higher than that of other cutting processes, the production cost is commonly low because of the high production rates and the long tool life. Figure (3) presents some of the important geometrical parameters of broaching cutting tool. Figure 3: Broaching tool geometry In figure (3), and are rake angle, clearance (relief) angle, tooth height and land length respectively. The rake angle and clearance angle can be selected based on workpiece material. The rake angle is usually selected between to and clearance angle is usually selected between to [12]. The total length of the tool and number of simultaneously engaged cutting edges can be determined by the pitch length which is a linear distance between two successive cutting edges. Based on some previously conducted research [10, 12, 15], it is concluded that it is preferable to have at least two cutting edges in cut to have a dynamically stable cutting. Another geometric feature of broaching tool is gullet space which is the empty space between two following teeth. The main advantage of gullet space is to retain the chip during cutting until the tooth leaves the workpiece. Once the broaching tool engages with the workpiece, chip is captured between tool and workpiece and it is maintained there until each tooth finishes the cut and leaves the workpiece. Small gullet space may cause tool breakage because of no space to keep the removed chip. It can also lead to poor surface finish due to rubbing of removed chip to the machined surface. If the gullet space is chosen too large it makes the tool very slender and decreases the tool strength and stability. According to the above mentioned reasons, it is very important to design the gullet space accurately to achieve acceptable space and dynamic stability simultaneously. In order to perform a reasonable design it is necessary to have a good understanding of cutting forces during machining p rocess. If the force model can predict the cutting force truthfully the result of force simulation can be used as an input for design and optimization process. 3. Mechanics of metal cutting in broaching Similar to almost all of the cutting processes, the cutting force in broaching can be expressed generally by three differential components which are directly related to chip load area and the contact length between cutting edge and workpiece such that [16]: (1) Figure (4) depicts the main features of oblique broaching and shows the force components generated during the chip removal process. Figure 4: Mechanics of oblique broaching In equations (1), is the differential component of tangential force, is the differential component of feed force and is the differential component of radial force. and are chip thickness and length of the cut for infinitesimal element along the cutting edge respectively. and are cutting and edge constants while the subscript refer to the tangential, feed and radial directions. Similar to the other cutting mechanics, the radial component of force appears only during oblique broaching when cutting edge has an inclination angle with the cutting direction. The total tangential, feed and radial component of cutting force for each edge can be calculated by integrating of those components along the cutting edge. Equation (2) shows the force integration along the cutting edge from the start to the end of engagement. (2) In equation (2), represents a differential element of chip area which is removed by the cutting edge. Equation (2) can be written in this format: (3) In the above equation, is chip load along the cutting edge and is length of engagement between cutting edge and workpiece. Figure (5) demonstrates the infinitesimal element of cutting edge, chip load and contact length for an arbitrary fir tree broaching tool. Figure 5: Infinitesimal element of cutting edge Since the chip load may vary along the broaching edge, it must be segmented into elements for which local thickness can be assumed constant. The geometry of chip along the broaching cutting edge is complicated however, since there is no relative motion between successive edges the chip load remains constant. The common approach for simulation of cutting forces is dividing the cutting edge to infinitesimal elements and calculating the area for each element separately. If total chip area can be calculated, cutting forces are obtained without the need for dividing the edge to elements. However, due to the variety and the complexity of cutting edge profiles in broaching, it is difficult to express the edge by an explicit function. Hence, calculation of the above integration in equation (3) is not a straight forward procedure. Representing the broaching cutting edge by B-Spline curves is a powerful way to express the geometry with parametric relations which makes integration and derivatio n along the edge much easier process. 4. Cutting edge interpolation by B-spline parametric curves A series of data point can be obtained by collecting the coordinates for each point along the cutting edge using inspection method such as CMM, digitizing or laser scanning. The desired B-Spline of degree p defined by control points passes through all those data points and expresses the cutting edge by a parametric curve. This parametric representation of the cutting edge can be easily appllied to perform derivation and integration along the edge to find the chip load area and the total engagement length. The interpolated B-spline cutting edge of degree p can be expressed as below [17-19]: (4) Where is interpolating B-Spline curve of degree p, is control points which control the geometry of curve and is B-spline Basis functions which can be computed by: (5) In equation (5), is a B-spline knot which belongs to the knot vector of . The equation (4) has unknown control points. For this reason, it is necessary to have a parameter like to relate the control points to the data points. Since parameter corresponds to data point , plugging into the above equation yields the following [19]: (6) There are n+1 B-spline basis functions and parameters in equation (6). Substituting t in to , these values can be organized in a matrix N as shown as below: (7) Data points and control points can be expressed in similar way: (8) And (9) In equation (9) matrix D is input data points which are represents the points along the cutting edge and matrix N can be obtained by evaluating B-spline basis functions at the given parameters [19]. D and N both are known and the only unknown parameter is matrix P. Equation (9) is a system of linear equations with unknown P, solving for P yields the control points and the desired B-spline interpolation curve becomes available. Figure (6) shows control points and desired interpolated broaching cutting edge using B-spline curves. Figure 6: B-spline interpolation of cutting edge 5. Calculation of chip load and contact length In orthogonal broaching, all of the cutting edges are parallel together and perpendicular to the cutter axis therefore the third column of matrixes and in equation (8) are zero and only two parameters of and in equation (4) is needed to represent the cutting edge. Figures (7a) and (7b) depicts a typical Cartesian coordinates in orthogonal and oblique broaching. (a) Orthogonal broaching (b) Oblique broaching Figure 7: Cartesian coordinates In contrast with orthogonal broaching in which all teeth are perpendicular to the cutter axis, in oblique broaching cutting edges have an oblique angle with cutter axis but they are still parallel to each other. In this case , , and all of the coordinates in the third column of matrixes and are non zero. B-spline interpolation of 3D curves is possible but little bit time consuming so it is preferable to transform the 3D to 2D and use the same method for 3D after transformation. Coordinates of point in Cartesian coordinates can be expressed by in plane as follows: (10) The above transformation can be done for all of cutting edge data points and in the new coordinate system matrixes is as follows: (11) Once matrix presented in new coordinate system the interpolation process can be done the same as previous method for 2D curves. As soon as the cutting edge is presented by B-Spline curves, chip area and cutting length for each cutting edge can be calculated directly from B-Spline equations as follows [13]: (12) Where indicate start of the cut, end of the cut, current cutting edge and previous cutting edge respectively. Equation (12) has two coordinate parameters and it is applicable for calculation of chip load and contact length for orthogonal and oblique broaching. 6. Cutting forces simulation In order to compare the presented geometric model with a real case, a broach cutter was selected and its cutting edges were modeled using B-Spline curves. The geometry of cutter was chosen based on previously presented research by Kokturk [12] to validate the newly proposed model capability. Figure (8) demonstrates the cutter geometry. Figure 8: Cutter geometry The geometrical features of cutting edge can be found in table (1) [12]. Table 1: Geometry of broaching cutter [12] In the next step, selected cutting edges were interpolated using proposed approach. Similar to other interpolation methods, B-Spline interpolation is sensitive to the number of data points. Increasing the number of data points yields a better accuracy but it makes the running time of the algorithm longer. Decreasing the number of data points, accelerate the algorithm but it has a negative effect on the accuracy. It has been shown that smooth parts of the curve are not very sensitive to the number of data points because inaccuracy occurs in the sharp corners where the curve direction changes suddenly. As a result, it would be better to use more data points at the sharp corners and less data point at the other parts to increase the accuracy and time efficiency of the algorithm simultaneously. Figures (9a) and (9b) show the B-Spline presentation of two successive cutting edges. (a) B-spline representation of the first cutting edge (b) B-spline representation of the second cutting edge Figure 9: B-spline representation of two successive cutting edges It can be seen from the above figures that B-Spline curve follows the data point at the sharp corner with high accuracy. 7. Results and discussion Figure (10) shows the final geometry of workpiece. Cutting conditions and force coefficients which are used in simulation can be found in table (2). Figure 10: Final workpiece geometry Table 2: Cutting conditions [12] 5 Since the cutting edge without oblique angle doesnà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢t have radial component of cutting force it was assumed that for this special case. The edge coefficients of cutting force are always very small in comparison to cutting coefficients so it has been assumed that , and are negligible. Figure 11: Simulated and experimental cutting forces for orthogonal broaching Figure 12: Simulated and experimental resultant force for orthogonal broaching Figure 13: Simulated and experimental cutting forces for oblique broaching Figure 14: Simulated and experimental resultant force for oblique broaching It can be seen from figures (11) to (14) that the results of newly proposed model are in good agreement with the previously published results [12]. Since there is no oblique angle in orthogonal broaching the cutting edge engaged with workpiece suddenly with full length so there is a jump in force diagram when each tooth engaged with workpiece. Due to presence of oblique angle in oblique broaching the tooth engaged with workpiece smoothly so the cutting forces rise gradually from zero to its final value. Also, in oblique broaching, fluctuation of cutting forces in the steady state part of the cutting is less than orthogonal one because when one of the teeth leaving the workpiece another one engages smoothly but the average force is higher because of longer contact length. 8. Conclusion In this paper, a force model is developed to simulate the cutting forces in orthogonal and oblique broaching using B-spline representation of the cutting edge. The new model can interpolate broaching tool cutting edge without any limitations which offer the simulation of cutting forces for any desired input geometry. In order to validate the new force model, the predicted cutting forces are compared to previously measured data [12]. The comparison showed a good agreement in both measured and predicted data for orthogonal and oblique broaching. The simulated cutting forces can be used to have a better understanding of process and optimize the geometric features of broaching cutter to achieve more efficient cutting which is under investigation of authors. Acknowledgment The authors acknowledge the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) for their support to the project.

The Best Ethical Practices And Values Of Greenpeace Politics Essay

The Best Ethical Practices And Values Of Greenpeace Politics Essay Greenpeace is a renowned Non-Governmental Organisation founded by Dorothy Stowe, Irving Stowe, Dorothy Metcalfe, Jim Bohlen, and Bob Hunter; to fight for the environmental degradation, since 1971. According to Greenpeace Annual Report 2001, Greenpeace is an independent campaigning organisation that uses non-aggression and mediagenic confrontation to expose global environmental issues, and to force solutions which are significant to a greener and peaceful future (Greenpeace, 2001). The organisation is currently campaigning for the safeguard of the oceans and forests by switching fossil fuels to renewable energies, abolishing the use of toxic chemicals, opposing the use of genetically-engineered organisms, and to discontinue nuclear armament as to make an end of radioactive contamination. Ethical perplexing situations faced by Greenpeace Ethical dilemma is a state of involving difficult of choices between conventions (Fisher Lovell, 2003). As we know, ethical dilemma is stressing on the action of preserving a debate problem and to maintain ethical manners rather than looking for an excuse to end the debate. In recent year, Greenpeace is distressing by the ecological issues as stated below:- Genetic-Engineering In this 21st century, human population is increasing exceedingly and climate changes have causing the food production to be threatened. This issue has create a dilemma on the population at large, and because of this issue, scientist has come out with a solution of Genetic-Engineering (GE) which is creating plants, animals and microorganisms by modifying their genomes (Greenpeace, 2010). Besides that, Genetic-Engineering has create a negative impact on agronomic activities; for example, engineered plants found defenceless towards pests and diseases, and creating genetic contamination spreading uncontrollably through interbreeding with other natural organisms. And because of this case, Greenpeace has taking initiative to prevent the contamination of genetic-engineered genomes to the society at large. Climate Changes The climate changes is the major threat for global environmental, and based on the report it claimed that the continuing of use of fossil fuels which triggering the climate rapidly change (Greenpeace, 2002). The climate change has impacts on the agronomic production and creating natural disasters such as erosion, flooding due to the rise of sea level and has risk the population at large and triggering the extinction of the wildlife. Besides that forest devastation also the reason climate change occurred. Greenpeace claimed that one fifth of the global greenhouse gas release due to industrial logging (Greenpeace, 2010). Nuclear Activities Since the bombing of Nagasaki and Hiroshima in Japan, nuclear activities have growing rapidly even the end of cold war, and besides that, the level of nuclear stockpiled still remain relatively high. In the report of world nuclear stockpile by Ploughshares Fund (2010) mentioned that there are total of 22,500 nuclear stockpiles in worldwide and over 8,190 warheads still operational (Ploughshares Fund, 2010), and this issue has concern Greenpeace since 1976; to fight for the safety of the people and the environment as to prevent catastrophes of nuclear explosion, warfare, and waste disposal issues. Based on Patrick Moore statement said that nuclear power plants are the next nuclear weapon which is the most hazardous devices has ever made (Moore, 1976). Based on the statement, we knew that Greenpeace never tolerate the uses of nuclear power plant which can convert to nuclear weapon which will harm the people and environment. Industrial Fisheries In recent year, the fishing industries have growths rapidly, and almost more than 70% of the world fisheries are abused by human (Greenpeace, 2010). This is because overfishing has become so common in today world besides that this issue has cause a great change in marine ecosystems which might cause extinction of the oceanic creatures in nearer future, In addition to this besides overfishing, by-catching has also creating a severed environmental impacts towards the marine ecologies because all of the by-catch creatures are threw away into the ocean after netted by the fishermen. The approach used to overcome the ethical issues The Greenpeace ozone campaign [mid-1980s-1992] The ozone campaign is to safeguard the ozone layer from being depleted. The depletion of the ozone layer is causing global warming due to the thinning of the ozone layer. The approach used by Greenpeace is public outreach where the organisation informing the public pertaining about the urgency of ozone layer depletion, and to catalyse public concern and demand for appropriate action from governments and corporations (Mate, 2001). Moreover, the materials that used for informing the public are publication of information video, publication of reports, brochures and leaflets, and public protests based on John Mate; to persuade the world about the danger of ozone depletion and to discourage the public to use substance which might hurt the ozone. Besides that, Greenpeace also involve in the commercial market, to initiate the public to switch to hydrocarbon refrigerator in 1992 from CFC refrigerator. Based on the case study, Greenpeace is using Kantian ethics. Kantian Ethics is stressing on the characteristic of dignity and moral equality of persons provided a principled rationale for resisting the more concerning features of consequentialism (Tiffany, 2006). The ethical values used by Greenpeace has shown the public that human error has cause the ozone to be depleted, and it is very essential that we (public) should change as to prevent further deterioration of the ozone layer. The benefit of Kantian ethics has a powerful and clear outline which well fit to everyones. Besides that, Kantian theory has played a good role in Greenpeace code of ethics where most of the Greenpeace employees followed. In addition, Immanuel Kant concludes that nothing can possibly be conceived in the world, or even out of it, which can be called good, without qualification, except a good will (Immanuel, 2008). Apple Inc. and Greenpeace [2008] Based on Patrick Schultz and Duane Helleloid (2010) statement said that Greenpeace challenged Apple due to their poor score on reducing the use of toxic chemicals such as Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) and Brominated Flame Retardants which is hazardous towards consumers. However, Apple declines to address the criticism by the Greenpeace activist about their products, recycling and the use of hazardous chemicals. And because of that, Greenpeace launched GREEN MY APPLE a campaign against Apple as to raise awareness of Apple environmental inadequacies in the society. This campaign is to initiate Apple to improve their company policies towards the environmental impact. (Schultz Helleloid, 2010) Based on the action Greenpeace has taken, it has shown that the theory of utilitarianism is being used. Utilitarianism is the moral course of action in which promoted the great happiness of the greatest number of people as to make the world a better place (Rawls Sen, 2009). The action has taken by Greenpeace is try to show Apple that what they are doing is not right because the substance uses by them are hazardous to consumers. Moreover, this case is quite similar to ozone depletion case where however the differences is Kantian rules is absolutism where the public must exercise or face the consequences of depletion but in utilitarianism is a choice of change or face consequences; e.g. if Apple stop using hazardous chemical on their product, they can protect the environmental impact as well as the health of their consumers; if they failed to practice their consequences is the public and the environment might face severe risk that is the purpose of Greenpeace try to convince Apple wha t they are doing is not right. In addition, David Crocker concludes that Humans are not only experiencers or preference satisfiers; they are also judges, evaluators, and doers (Crocker, 1997), and the reason Greenpeace became the ears and voice for the welfare of the public and environment. Greenpeace condemning against Papua New Guinea (PNG) development PNG main sources of income are based on forestry due to their land is unfitted for farming except for tree crops such as cocoa, coffee, palm oil, etc. However, according to Tim Curtin (2006), he mentioned that Greenpeace condemning PNG tree logging is based on unusual norms. Moreover, the condemning of Greenpeace is based on the information provided by Forest Trends which considered secondary sources of information based on the author the term illegal logging is a term can cover a broad range non-forestry legal issues such as work permits, expatriate staffs, training, health and safety, which has nothing to do with forestry issues in PNG (Curtin, 2006). Base on this case, Greenpeace has make an unethical condemnation against PNG in which against their main core values of seeking solution, promote open, informed debate about societys environmental choices (Greenpeace, 2010). Besides that, they are did not exercise their campaign strategies and policies values to take great care to reflect their fundamental respect for democratic principles and to seek solutions that will promote global social equity (Greenpeace, 2010). In PNG case, Greenpeace ignored the promotion of global social equity and did not observe the condition in PNG besides taking second hand information to support their criticism. Besides that, there is no ethics of care in this context; according to Helena Stensà ¶ta (2010), she said look into the context of the ethical dilemma in order to resolve it, and it regards moral development as advances in our understandings of responsibilities and relationships (Stensà ¶ta, 2010). Based on her explanation, Greenpeace should put themselves in PNG shoes; to understand their condition rather than jump into conclusion without knowing what actually happen there, and besides that, Greenpeace should not relied on the information obtained from Forest Trends since Greenpeace did not have sufficient information pertaining PNG logging issues as stated by Curtin. In addition, the answer of ethical dilemmas must always be dedicated on preserving the relationships between people (Aerostudents, 2010), and not pinpointing others. Greenpeace succeeded in obstructing Greenlands opportunities to secure their economic foundation for its peoples life condition and he regards Greenpeace action as being a very grave and illegal attack on Greenlands constitutional rights, and it is highly disturbing that Greenpeace in its chase on media attention with all measures breaks the safety regulations put in place to protect people and the environment by Greenlander Prime Minister (Pearse, 2010).Greenpeace against Greenlandic economic development Greenlanders are critically dependent on fisheries, shrimps and metals exports, and cultivating forage crops, garden and greenhouse vegetables as well as domesticating sheep, reindeers and fishes for local uses (CIA, 2011). Greenpeace exist in Greenland has create hatred amongst Greenlanders because their action has cause a huge loses by stopping them on sealskin trading, and telling youngsters in town not to eat whale or seal, the food Inuits have lived off for hundreds of years (Moshiri, 2010). Again in 2010, Greenpeace once again attack on Greenland oil rig development which condemn by Greenlander Prime Minister Kuupit Kleist (refers to the textbox above), and damaging countrys economy by occupy drilling platform (Carrell, 2010). As understand, Greenpeace trying to protect the nature from deteriorated by the oil drilling. The case above has shows that the organisation has violated their principle of non-violent confrontation, finding solutions and informed debate about societys environmental choices (Greenpeace, 2010). This case is very similar to their condemnation on Papua New Guinea development where there is no fundamental respect for democratic principles when dealing with the situation in a wrongful action because it is not about informing the public about the danger of environmental impact but it creating public unrest. Besides that, there is no ethical relativity in this case. According to Gael McDonald (2010) saying that ethical relativism it driven by the recognition of historical, cultural and individual diversity and the principal supporters are those who have identified significant variations in moral customs around the world and in different social settings (McDonald, 2010). Based on Greenland case, Greenpeace should not condemn Greenlanders oil rig development and halting their sealskin export because it will ruin the country economic, and their forceful approach has infuriate Greenlanders where the organisation has no right to condemn their economic approach where most Greenlanders agreed upon the development of their oil rig reserve because it will reduce the dependency on Danish annual $500 million grant from the oil development (Moshiri, 2010). In addition, there is also no duty of care to resolve the problem in a less confronted approach.

grachi tiberius gaius rome Essay examples -- essays research papers f

THE GRACCHI Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus was bon in 163 B.C. and came from a distinguished family. His grandfather conquered Hannibal, his father brought the Celtiberian war successfully to a close, reduced Sardinia, and was elected consul for two terms and sensor for one. His mother Cornelia was a woman of wide-culture who employed Greek tutors to educate her sons, Tiberius and Gaius. Two tutors who influenced Tiberius at a young age were Diophanes, a teacher of oration and Blossius of Cumae, a philosopher. After taking part in the campaign of 146 BC, which ended with the destruction of Carthage, Tiberius was elected quaestor in 137. Travelling through Etruria, Tiberius saw large estates worked by slaves and noticed the absence of free peasants. It is said that Tiberius realized the need for reform while visiting this province on his way to Spain. There, Tiberius served in a war against Numantia under the consul Mancinus. After suffering numerous defeats in battle, Mancinus attempted to abandon camp. However the Numantines, realizing what was happening seized the camp before they could escape. Tiberius saved the Roman army from slaughter by securing a treaty with the Spaniards. When they returned to Rome, Tiberius was seen as a saviour and blame was placed on the incompetent generals who were handed back to the Spaniards for execution. Tiberius himself escaped judgement by the skin of his teeth. According to Plutarch, ‘It would seem†¦that Scipio, who was then the greatest and most influential man at Rome helped to save them’ (1988, 159) There are a number of dominant motives for Gracchus’ want for reform. His knowledge of Greek political thought and practices allowed him to understand the needs and potential of the state, the Spanish campaign, slave revolts in Sicily, the increase in Rome’s unemployment rate and the impact the changing economy had on the republic. It doubtful that only one of these fuelled Gracchus’ desires for change, it is more likely a combination of many or all. When Tiberius began to speak out in politics he did not do so alone. He was backed by his father-in-law Appius Claudius Pulcher, who was Princeps Senatus and two others, Pontifex Mucius Scaevola and Pontifex licinius Crassus Mucianus. IN 133 Tiberius Gracchus was elected tribune. He proposed a ‘lex agraria’ which would make land owned by the state available for distribution ... ...ople. During Gaius’ visit to Junonia to oversee the construction effort, rumours were spread in Rome by his opponents of the delay and failure of his new colony. Through these rumours, Gaius lost favour with the people. This can be seen due to his failure to get re-elected for a third tribunate in 121. As tribune Minucius Rufus proposed to repeal one of Gaius’ bills, he gathered support. In a minor disturbance, a servant of consul Opimius was killed. The senate was forced to pass a resolution that consuls should see to it that the Republic came to no harm. Opimius summoned to arms senators and equites against Gaius and Flaccus who had occupied the Aventine hill. After failed negotiations they and their supporters were defeated and killed. It is said that the weight of their heads in gold was to be awarded to the man who brought Opimius the heads of Gaius and Flaccus. Once again political differences in Rome resulted in bloodshed and brought an end to the remaining Gracchi. BIBLIOGRAPHY H.H. Scullard, From the Gracchi to Nero 2003 Routledge, London Plutarch, Roman Lives 1988 Penguin E.S. Shuckburgh, History of Rome 1896 Macmillan & Co. Ltd, London